Black Kettle
Black Kettle was a Cheyenne who was a member of the central council of the Cheyenne, known as the Council of 44. The 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie set aside lands of the Cheyenne for their use, but white expansion into the Great Plains continued unchecked, and both Cheyenne land and their main supply of food and furs, the American Bison, was reduced steadily. Armed conflict was inevitable. Black Kettle recognized that open warfare with the US Army was tantamount to suicide, and led his people to the Sand Creek reservation under a treaty which he believed would protect them, the Treaty of Fort Wise.
The Sand Creek region was depleted of game, particularly bison, and many of the Cheyenne strayed from the reservation, attacking the troops sent to pursue them. A group of Cheyenne known as the Dog Soldiers were particularly hostile to the Americans, and their attacks were attributed to the Cheyenne as a whole, despite some evidence of Black Kettle’s opposition to them. Although there were treaties to protect the Cheyenne at Sand Creek, evidence that many attacks on settlers and troops emanated from there led to an attack on the reservation by US Army troops in November 1864, with over 150 Cheyenne killed.
Black Kettle fled during the attack, returning afterwards to aid his wounded wife, whom he had left behind. Following the attack the remaining Cheyenne allied with Arapaho and Kiowa to wage war. Black Kettle entered into further negotiations with US authorities which resulted in the Treaty of Little Arkansas River, granting the Cheyenne lands in the Indian Territory which is now in Oklahoma. Black Kettle and his shrinking band of followers went to the Indian Territory, but continued to hold hostages taken by the Dog Soldiers.
The taking and holding of hostages by the Cheyenne meant either Black Kettle was in violation of the treaty or he no longer held sway over his band of followers. Whichever is correct remains disputed. Meanwhile raids against troops and the massacre of civilians continued, conducted by the Dog Soldiers and other warriors from Black Kettle’s band. In November of 1868, the US Army launched a reprisal expedition against the Cheyenne in their winter camps. Black Kettle and his followers were then in camp along the Washita River when they were attacked by the US Seventh Cavalry led by George Armstrong Custer.
Black Kettle, his wife, and over 100 Cheyenne and members of other tribes were killed in the attack, and the encampment was destroyed. Black Kettle is today considered to have worked for peace, but either he was unable to control the warriors allegedly under his authority, or he turned a blind eye to their activities. It is possible he supported those activities. Clearly there were violations of the treaties he negotiated by both sides of the conflict.