Chemical Warfare in the Roman Empire
Today, we think of chemical warfare as a modern phenomenon; however, in fact, chemical warfare dates back to the ancient world, in use as early as ancient Greece. One example of the use of chemical warfare was clearly found during early 20th century excavations. An excavation at the site of Dura-Europos, once a Roman-controlled city in modern-day Syria, shows clear evidence of chemical warfare, supported by archaeology.
In order to understand what happened at Dura-Europos, we must first set the scene, taking place in 256 C.E. Persian forces sought to take control of the Roman-held city. The Persian strategy appears to have been a relatively simple one; they sought to dig under the mudbrick walls surrounding the city. Extensive tunnels have been found in this area, including some from the necropolis to the city itself. In response, a group of Roman soldiers entered an underground tunnel, perhaps seeking to push back the invaders, dig their own tunnel, or reinforce the walls. This is the scene archaeologists found when the area was excavated in the 1920s and 1930s; however, more recent reinvestigation has provided new insights.
When the Roman soldiers entered this underground tunnel they did not encounter, as they may have expected, Persian soldiers. Instead, they were quickly overtaken by toxic fumes. All evidence suggests that the men quite rapidly died where they stood, arms in hand, and purses of coins on their belts. In addition, the remains of a single Persian soldier were found in the same area of the excavation. It is likely that the Persians set a simple fire, then placed sulfur and bitumen in the fire; a bellows may have been used to direct the smoke, or they may have relied on the natural movement of air and smoke within the narrow shafts of the tunnels.
This is only a theory to explain the findings of archaeologists in the 1920s and 1930s, but it is a theory that fits well with the excavation evidence, and with our understanding of ancient warfare. Chemical weapons of all types were actively in use in the ancient world, proving that science played a role even at that early date in human history.