Middle Kingdom (C. 2055 – 1786 BC)
Mentuhotep II is said to have finally reunited Egypt in the 39th year of his reign. He was the strongest ruler that the nation had in centuries and also embarked on a program of self-deification. There are temples dedicated to him where he is depicted wearing the headgear of Min and Amun. He was still considered to be divine or half divine by Egyptians some 200 years after his death.
Mentuhotep IV was assassinated in c. 1991 BC and this marked the beginning of the 12th Dynasty with Sehetepibre Amenemhat as the new leader. He reigned for almost 30 years before succumbing to the same fate as his predecessor. The nation’s capital was moved to It-towy although Thebes remained an important religious center. The Middle Kingdom was another era of prosperity in Egypt with a series of long-reigning Pharaohs.
It was at this time that Egypt started an aggressive foreign policy. It colonized Nubia and benefitted from the ebony, ivory, gold and other resources it found in its new conquest. Egypt also managed to fight off the Bedouins and built trading and diplomatic relations with Palestine, Syria and a host of other countries. There was even a second period of pyramid building, and literature also flourished. Archaeologists have recovered hundreds of papyrus copies of The Story of Sinuhe.
The Middle Kingdom peaked under the reign of Amenemhat III who ruled from the middle of the 19th century BC until the beginning of the 18th century BC. Things began to decline at this point with Queen Sobekneferu said to be the last ruler of the 12th Dynasty. In her defense, it appears as if Egypt’s resources were once again dwindling, so she had to handle a lot of problems. She died without heirs in approximately 1786 BC which led to another period of instability.
Second Intermediate Period (C. 1786 – 1567 BC)
The 13th Dynasty was the start of another succession of short-lived Pharaohs, and this era is also known for the war with the Hyksos who threatened to destroy Egypt. For over 1,500 years, Egypt had managed to avoid major battles with foreign enemies, but this changed when the Hyksos took advantage of the chaos to take control of the country.
Egypt quickly lost the lands it had gained as the 13th Dynasty contained a host of weak rulers in its 150-year history. The lack of a strong leader led to further power struggles within the country which was divided into many spheres of influence. By approximately 1805 BC, a Canaanite group broke away and formed the 14th Dynasty which ruled from Xois as the rival 13th Dynasty had its headquarters in Thebes.
Both groups were unable to keep the Hyksos at bay, and the foreign invaders formed the 15th Dynasty by 1650 BC. There is some confusion over the 16th Dynasty which featured rulers from Hyksos or Thebes. To make things even more complicated, the 17th Dynasty ruled at the same time as the Hyksos leaders. It consisted of Theban rulers who had their HQ in Upper Egypt. Finally, the Thebans managed to drive the Hyksos out of Egypt by the 1560s BC and the uncertainty of the Second Intermediate Period came to an end.